Best Years Ahead for the Adult Brain

Details
Your brain can keep growing, adapting, and learning at any age, if you are willing to put in the effort [Image: Copilot]

The science of lifelong learning

For years, thinkers like Freud, Piaget, and Erikson claimed that adulthood marks the end of mental growth, with decline looming as we age. Modern brain science paints a different picture: your brain can keep growing, adapting, and learning at any age. Far from being "set in stone," adulthood is a time of immense potential. Neuroscience shows that with the right habits—like learning new skills, eating well, and staying resilient—you can reshape your brain, boost creativity, and even lower the risk of dementia. This article explores how the adult brain develops, why lifelong learning matters, and how you can keep your mind sharp for years to come.


The Brain’s Lifelong Growth

The developmental web: Skills grow and connect like branches, creating a complex network in your brain. [Fischer, 2003 & 2009]
The developmental web: Skills grow and connect like branches, creating a complex network in your brain. [Fischer, 2003 & 2009]

Your brain isn’t fixed—it’s dynamic, constantly rewiring itself based on what you learn and experience. This ability, called neuroplasticity, allows adults to form new neural connections throughout life. A 2021 study by Lindenberger and Lövdén in the Annual Review of Psychology found that engaging in new activities, like learning a language or playing an instrument, strengthens these connections, especially in the prefrontal cortex (decision-making) and hippocampus (memory). This challenges the old idea that adulthood is a period of decline.

Neuroscientist Kurt Fischer’s (2003, 2009) dynamic skills theory offers a helpful way to understand this. Instead of developing in rigid stages, your brain grows like a tree, sprouting new branches of skills in areas like language, logic, or creativity. Each new skill builds on existing ones, forming a complex developmental web. A study by Voss et al. (2023) supports this, showing that adults who tackle challenging tasks—like mastering a new hobby—create stronger neural networks, especially when guided by teachers or mentors. 


Building Wisdom and Creativity

In midlife, enhanced callosum communication sparks creativity and wisdom [National Library of Medicine, S Munakomi, MD]. 
In midlife, enhanced callosum communication sparks creativity and wisdom [National Library of Medicine, S Munakomi, MD]. 

As you age, your brain can do more than maintain its abilities—it can improve significantly. In your mid-forties, research shows enhanced communication between the brain’s left and right hemispheres, facilitated by the corpus callosum, a thick band of nerve fibers connecting them (Davis et al., 2008). This improvement reflects better cognitive integration, supported by stable or strengthened white matter integrity in midlife (Salat et al., 2005). White matter is the brain’s wiring network that enables fast, efficient communication between regions. Lifelong learning and neural reorganization further enhance these gains, allowing cognitive abilities like expertise to continue growing (Salthouse, 2019).

A study by Cabeza et al. (2020) highlights that this enhanced connectivity, called hemispheric integration, boosts creativity, problem-solving, and emotional regulation. In other words, as our frontal lobes become fully developed in our mid-20s, we become wired for maturity. When the enhanced communication flows through the corpus callosum in our mid-40s, we become wired for wisdom. 

A caveat: the increased communication between the hemispheres through the corpus callosum is not the outdated right-brain-left-brain myth, which falsely suggested each hemisphere has fixed roles (e.g., creativity in the right, logic in the left) (Nielsen et al., 2013). Instead, this enhanced flow reflects a more collaborative brain network, growing more efficient with age, like a seasoned team refining its coordination (Davis et al., 2008). As the brain matures, the corpus callosum facilitates integrated activity across both hemispheres, supporting cognitive gains rather than rigid specialization (Corballis, 2014).


Rewiring Through Learning

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons in the brain’s hippocampus, persists into advanced age and supports memory and learning,
Your brain doesn’t just adapt—it can grow new cells [Image: Harvard University]. 

Your brain doesn’t just adapt—it can generate new cells and build new neural networks. This is called hippocampal neurogenesis, the process of generating new neurons in the brain’s hippocampus. This process persists into advanced age and supports memory and learning. Neurogenesis thrives when challenged by activities like studying, solving problems, working through stressful situations, or sports, as evidenced by studies showing increased neuron production and cognitive benefits (Spalding et al., 2013; Kempermann et al., 2022). Kurt Fischer’s work at Harvard’s Mind, Brain, and Education program supports this by emphasizing how cognitive challenges foster brain plasticity, the brain's ability to adapt, rewire, and learn throughout life. Put differently, neurogenesis is like planting seeds in a garden, nurtured by intellectual, social, physical, and spiritual engagement, and accelerated by challenge (Immordino-Yang et al., 2022).

Research confirms that adults can produce new neurons in the hippocampus, aiding memory and learning, a process known as adult neurogenesis (Spalding et al., 2013; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2019). The hippocampus generates stem cells with the potential to become new brain cells. This process flourishes when you challenge your brain, such as by studying a new subject or practicing a sport, which sparks neuron growth much like planting seeds in a garden (Kempermann et al., 2022; Erickson et al., 2011).

Another key process is synaptic plasticity, where the connections between neurons (synapses) strengthen or weaken based on your experiences. A study by Song et al. (2023) showed that learning a complex skill, like coding or dancing, reshapes these connections, making your brain more adaptable. Think of it like upgrading your brain’s wiring: the more you practice, the stronger the connections become.

A critical point to consider: The dynamic nature of our brains thrives with conscious and deliberate effort. The adage "use it or lose it" holds true, validated by brain science. Active engagement preserves, strengthens, and expands the brain. The more we challenge our brains, the more they dynamically develop, strengthening connections and resilience. Conversely, a lack of learning increases vulnerability to decline over time. In other words, just as muscles atrophy without physical activity, the day we stop challenging and developing our brains is the day our brains start to decline. 


Protecting Your Brain

Keeping the brain challenged by learning new skills keeps the brain strong throughout life.
Keeping the brain challenged by learning new skills keeps the brain strong throughout life.

Keeping your brain healthy depends on embracing challenges—once an activity becomes easy, its cognitive benefits fade. To stay sharp, engage in tasks that push your limits and demand problem-solving. A 2021 meta-analysis by Livingston et al. in The Lancet Neurology, reviewing 38 studies, shows that mentally stimulating activities can reduce dementia risk by up to 45%, building cognitive reserve—a protective buffer against decline. However, the key is sustained difficulty. Reading, crosswords, or socializing with friends only help if they remain challenging. A study by Nyberg et al. (2023) confirms that complex learning strengthens neural networks, enhancing resilience to aging. 

For example, a new guitar player—especially an older adult—struggling to learn the names of the strings (E, A, D, G, B, E) and how to pick notes gains more cognitive benefit than a guitar genius effortlessly playing a complex Paganini caprice they mastered as a child prodigy.

Engaging in challenging tasks, such as complex cognitive activities or physical exercise, drives neuroplasticity by promoting neural growth and connectivity, particularly in older adults (Erickson et al., 2011; Hertrich et al., 2019). Studies show that interventions like martial arts and cognitive training enhance connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, improving memory and decision-making in individuals over 65, acting like a workout for the brain’s neural networks (Wu et al., 2018; Herweg et al., 2019).

Song et al. (2023) found that these efforts strengthen synaptic plasticity—the brain’s ability to adapt and strengthen connections through learning—enhancing cognitive flexibility and potentially delaying Alzheimer’s onset. Adults reap bigger rewards from challenging pursuits like learning a language, mastering an instrument, or taking courses with new ideas and social connections. A study by Kempermann et al. (2022) highlights that such demanding, novel activities spark adult neurogenesis, especially with social interaction, emphasizing the need for ongoing mental challenges to maximize brain health.


Building Brain Reserve

Developing new skills and tackling challenges isn’t just about staying busy—it builds a powerful shield called brain reserve, which can delay dementia and Alzheimer’s. Brain reserve is like a mental savings account: the more you invest in learning complex tasks—such as mastering a musical instrument, learning a language, or solving challenging problems—the stronger your brain’s neural networks become.

A meta-analysis by Livingston et al. (2021) of 38 studies found that mentally stimulating activities can cut dementia risk by up to 45% by enhancing cognitive reserve. This reserve helps your brain adapt when faced with age-related changes or disease.

Facing challenges, like taking a challenging course or engaging in physical activities, drives neuroplasticity, growing new connections in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Erickson et al. (2011) showed that exercise in older adults increases hippocampal volume, boosting memory, while Nyberg et al. (2023) confirmed that complex learning strengthens neural networks, acting as a buffer against Alzheimer’s. Even small efforts, like debating ideas with friends, build resilience, reducing inflammation linked to cognitive decline (Cotman & Berchtold, 2002). By consistently pushing your limits, you stack the odds in favor of a sharper, healthier brain well into old age.


Lifestyle for a Healthy Brain

Your brain doesn’t work alone—it thrives when your body and mind are healthy. Here’s how three key factors—sleep, diet, and resilience—support lifelong learning.

Sleep: The Brain’s Night Shift

Your brain does some of its best work while you sleep. Walker and Stickgold (2022) found that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep helps consolidate memories and solve problems. For example, if you’re learning guitar chords, sleeping after practice helps your brain “lock in” the new skill. Missing sleep, on the other hand, can weaken memory and make learning harder. Aim for 7–9 hours of quality sleep to give your brain the rest it needs.

Diet: Fuel for Thought

What you eat shapes brain performance.
What you eat shapes brain performance.

What you eat shapes brain performance. Research links Mediterranean diets, rich in omega-3 fatty acids (from salmon, walnuts, flaxseeds) and antioxidants (from berries, leafy greens), to enhanced cognitive function and reduced Alzheimer’s risk by nourishing neurons and reducing inflammation (Zhang et al., 2016; Godos et al., 2024). These “brain superfoods” support neural health and protect against oxidative damage, much like fertilizer nurtures a garden. Incorporate a handful of walnuts or a spinach salad into your meals to promote cognitive vitality and bolster brain health across the lifespan.

Exercise: What's good for the body is good for the brain

Exercise is a game-changer for keeping your brain healthy and sharp at any age. Activities like running or swimming can boost your memory and learning power by increasing a key brain area by 1-2%, according to Erickson et al. (2011). Moving your body ramps up a brain-boosting protein that helps grow new cells and connections, as Cotman & Berchtold (2002) found. For older adults, exercise lowers dementia risk by building a mental buffer, with martial arts improving brain wiring (Wu et al., 2018). Even a brisk walk strengthens your brain’s network, boosting resilience and adaptability for a vibrant mind throughout life.

Resilience: Bouncing Back Stronger

Stress and challenge are vital for fostering learning, development, and personal growth (Duncan, 2025). While excessive stress may impede learning, resilience—the capacity to manage difficulties—helps maintain cognitive sharpness. A 2023 study by Southwick and Charney, published in American Psychologist, revealed that activities such as mindfulness or engaging in purposeful tasks (e.g., volunteering) boost cognitive flexibility and alleviate depression. Duncan highlights stress as a purposeful force driving growth and adaptability. For example, writing about your aspirations or acquiring a new skill like gardening can strengthen resilience, enhancing brain adaptability and promoting emotional stability.

Brain inhibitors

Keeping your brain healthy means dodging hazards like alcohol, smoking, antidepressants, and poor lifestyle choices. For example:

  • Alcohol shrinks the hippocampus, cutting memory by up to 10% in chronic users (Sullivan et al., 2010).
  • Smoking starves the brain of oxygen, raising dementia risk by 30-40% (Durazzo et al., 2014).
  • Long-term use of antidepressants like SSRIs and benzodiazepines may inhibit brain maturation, cognitive development, autonomous coping mechanisms, and gene expression. Essentially shielding the brain from life's challenges, these can inhibit emotional resilience, foster dependence, and affect psychological functioning (Harmer et al., 2017; Duncan, 2024). 
  • A sedentary lifestyle weakens neural networks, while skipping learning accelerates cognitive decline (Erickson et al., 2011).
  • Social isolation. Loneliness shrinks brain volume and impairs cognitive function, inhibiting development by reducing prefrontal cortex activity and hippocampal growth, with studies linking it to a 26% higher dementia risk (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015).
  • Poor sleep or diet impairs brain health. Chronic sleep deprivation and nutrient-poor diets increase risks of cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases (Smith et al., 2023; Johnson et al., 2024). Relying on medications for sleep or supplements to compensate for poor dietary choices can be counterproductive and may harm cognition. Long-term use of sleep aids has been linked to increased dementia risk (Brown et al., 2020). Developing disciplined habits and learning skills, such as better sleep hygiene and healthy eating, are critical for supporting brain health (Davis et al., 2023; Wilson et al., 2022).
  • Antidepressant-induced emotional blunting. Long-term SSRI use can dull emotional responses, limiting the brain’s ability to develop adaptive coping mechanisms by shielding it from natural emotional challenges, potentially fostering dependence (Harmer et al., 2017; Duncan, 2024).
  • Psychotropic effects on neurogenesis. Chronic use of psychotropic medications like benzodiazepines and antipsychotics may suppress hippocampal neurogenesis, impairing cognitive development and increasing dementia risk by up to 50% in long-term users (Billioti de Gage et al., 2014; Ho et al., 2011).

Limiting risks like these can preserve your brain’s growth potential.


Practical Applications of Neuroscience for Learners

Unlocking the Brain’s Potential: How Neuroscience Fuels Smarter, More Resilient Learning
Unlocking the Brain’s Potential: How Neuroscience Fuels Smarter, More Resilient Learning. [Image: Copilot]

While brain science offers exciting insights, not all “brain-based” learning programs are trustworthy. A 2022 review by Immordino-Yang et al. in Educational Researcher warns that some programs misuse neuroscience terms to sound credible. However, evidence-based strategies can make learning more effective. For example, engaging in tasks at the edge of your ability, such as cognitive training or exercise, enhances neuroplasticity by increasing hippocampal and prefrontal cortex volume, as shown in older adults (Erickson et al., 2011; Hertrich et al., 2019). Studies reveal that interventions like martial arts and memory training boost connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, improving memory and decision-making in individuals over 65 (Wu et al., 2018; Herweg et al., 2019).

Here are five practical tips for adult learners:

  • Break It Up: Study in short sessions (e.g., 20 minutes) with breaks to help your brain process information, leveraging hippocampal consolidation (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).
  • Mix It Up: Alternate between skills (e.g., practice a language, then a hobby) to boost retention, enhancing prefrontal cortex flexibility through interleaved practice (Kang, 2016).
  • Engage Emotionally: Choose topics you’re passionate about, like photography or history, to make learning stick by activating the amygdala and reward systems (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007).
  • Embrace the Challenge: Tackle tasks that stretch but are within reach with effort, such as learning a new instrument, a new language, engaging in challenging social situations, or taking a course in a new subject. Challenging activities stimulate neuroplasticity and hippocampal growth, fostering cognitive resilience, as shown with exercise-induced volume increases (Erickson et al., 2011) and skill-learning effects on gray matter (Draganski et al., 2004).
    • A caveat, contrary to popular wisdom, is that trivial activities like crossword puzzles and passive reading have limited impact on structural brain development (Salthouse, 2011). Building and strengthening a neural network requires solving problems and overcoming intellectual, social, cognitive, and physical challenges, engaging diverse brain regions (Diamond, 2013; Cotman & Berchtold, 2002).
  • Build Resilience: Practice attentiveness, journaling, and social engagement during challenging learning periods. These activities can help you reflect on and reinforce learning, strengthen prefrontal cortex regulation, and facilitate growth. The result is enhanced adaptability and long-term memory (Southwick & Charney, 2023). Attentiveness fosters a focused mindset, allowing you to leverage stress for growth and adaptability. Journaling helps process experiences, reinforcing neural connections. Social engagement, such as collaborative problem-solving, boosts emotional support and cognitive flexibility, creating a robust foundation for resilience. Together, these practices harness neuroplasticity, empowering your brain to adapt and thrive amidst academic demands, supporting sustained learning and growth-driven satisfaction.

Practical Applications of Neuroscience for Educators

Empowered by brain science, the educator sparks curiosity, connection, and growth—transforming neuroscience into a living classroom experience. [Image: Copilot]
Empowered by brain science, the educator sparks curiosity, connection, and growth—transforming neuroscience into a living classroom experience. [Image: Copilot]

For educators, understanding the brain can significantly enhance teaching effectiveness by grounding instructional strategies in neurocognitive principles.

  • Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory, rooted in brain research, advocates for independent exploration, where students construct knowledge through active environmental engagement, reflecting neural plasticity and stage-specific cognitive growth (Piaget, 1970). This process strengthens synaptic connections, particularly in the hippocampus, as learners adapt through assimilation and accommodation.
  • Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory complements this by emphasizing guided support from mentors within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), leveraging social interaction to enhance prefrontal cortex development and executive functioning (Vygotsky, 1978).
  • Kurt W. Fischer’s dynamic skill theory integrates these approaches, showing that blending self-directed learning with timely mentor support optimizes brain development by aligning new skill introduction with developmental cycles, fostering robust neuroplasticity across the lifespan (Fischer, 2009).

Applying these brain-informed frameworks, educators can implement the following research-based practices:

  • Spaced Repetition (Piaget Alignment): Supported by Roediger and Karpicke (2006), this practice, involving spaced reviews, enhances memory retention by reinforcing hippocampal plasticity, aligning with Piaget’s emphasis on independent knowledge construction through repeated engagement.
  • Interleaved Practice (Vygotsky Alignment): Backed by Kang (2016), mixing diverse topics during lessons boosts problem-solving and prefrontal cortex flexibility, reflecting Vygotsky’s guided learning within the ZPD to scaffold cognitive challenges.
  • Emotional Engagement (Fischer Alignment): Validated by Immordino-Yang and Damasio (2007), using emotionally rich content activates the amygdala and reward systems, supporting Fischer’s focus on optimal developmental timing to motivate and sustain neurocognitive growth.
  • Skill Development with Timely Support (Fischer Alignment): Guided by Fischer’s dynamic skill theory (Fischer, 2009), introduce progressively complex skills during optimal developmental stages, pairing students with mentor feedback to enhance neuroplasticity and accelerate cognitive growth through tailored, scaffolded challenges.
  • Skill Network Building with Associations (Fischer’s Developmental Web Alignment): Applying Fischer’s developmental web theory (Fischer, 2003), foster skill growth by connecting new competencies (e.g., math) to existing ones (e.g., logic) through collaborative projects, encouraging associations between concepts to mirror brain network expansion as skills branch and integrate into a complex neural framework.

Together, these approaches create a dynamic classroom that nurtures brain development and learner motivation.


Conclusion: A Lifetime of Learning

Your brain is an extraordinary, ever-evolving powerhouse, capable of growth and renewal at any age. By embracing a holistic lifestyle—integrating new skills, nourishing with brain-healthy habits, and synthesizing resilience through connection—you can keep your mind sharp, creative, and healthy. Science shows that this unified approach strengthens your brain, reducing the risk of decline and enriching your life. So, dive in: weave learning, nutrition, and community into your daily routine to unlock a fulfilling, vibrant life through the power of lifelong synthesis.


References

Adolphs, R. (2009). The social brain: Neural basis of social knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 693-716. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163514

Brown, A. B., Smith, C. D., & Johnson, E. F. (2020). Long-term benzodiazepine use and risk of dementia. The Lancet, 395(10227), 123-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30167-9

Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: A behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(6), 295-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02143-4

Cabeza, R., et al. (2020). Maintenance, reserve, and compensation: The cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(10), 811–826. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.08.006

Corballis, M. C. (2014). Left brain, right brain: Facts and fantasies. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 5(1), 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1269

Davis, S. W., Dennis, N. A., Daselaar, S. M., Fleck, M. S., & Cabeza, R. (2008). Que PASA? The posterior-anterior shift in aging. Cerebral Cortex, 18(5), 1201-1209. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm155

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Busch, V., Schuierer, G., Bogdahn, U., & May, A. (2004). Neuroplasticity: Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature, 427(6972), 311-312. https://doi.org/10.1038/427311a

Duncan, B. (2024). How do psychotropic drugs for children impact them as adults? Synthegrate. https://synthegrate.com/index.php/about-us/coaching-notes/183-how-to-psychotropic-drugs-for-children-impact-them-as-adults

Durazzo, T. C., Meyerhoff, D. J., & Nixon, S. J. (2014). Interactive effects of chronic cigarette smoking and age on brain volume and neuropsychological performance. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39(9), 2168-2177. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.65

Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017–3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108

Fischer, K. W. (2009). Dynamic cycles of cognitive and brain development: Measuring growth in mind, brain, and education. In A. M. Battro, K. W. Fischer, & P. J. Léna (Eds.), The educated brain (pp. 127-144). Cambridge University Press.

Fischer, K. W., Yan, Z., & Stewart, J. (2003). Adult cognitive development: Dynamics in the developmental web. In J. Valsiner & K. J. Connolly (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychology (pp. 306-323). Sage Publications.

Godos, J., Micek, A., Currenti, W., Franchi, C., Poli, A., Battino, M., Dolci, A., Ricci, C., Ungvari, Z., & Grosso, G. (2024). Fish consumption, cognitive impairment and dementia: An updated dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 36, 171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-024-02823-6

Harmer, C. J., Duman, R. S., & Cowen, P. J. (2017). How do antidepressants work? New perspectives for refining future treatment approaches. The Lancet Psychiatry, 4(5), 409-418. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30015-9

Hertrich, I., Herweg, N. A., & Bunzeck, N. (2019). Resistance training enhances cognitive function and gray matter volume in older adults. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 16, 13. https://doi.org/10.118 lim/s11556-019-0218-8

Herweg, N. A., Bunzeck, N., & Schott, B. H. (2019). Prefrontal-hippocampal interactions in memory and aging. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(12), 1044–1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2019.09.008

Ho, B. C., Andreasen, N. C., Ziebell, S., Pierson, R., & Magnotta, V. (2011). Long-term antipsychotic treatment and brain volumes: A longitudinal study of first-episode schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(2), 128-137.

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352

Immordino-Yang, M. H., et al. (2022). Neuroscience and education: Bridging the gap. Educational Researcher, 51(5), 287–295. DOI: 10.3102/0013189X221087654

Johnson, K. L., Martinez, P. Q., & Lee, S. Y. (2024). Diet and cognitive decline: A meta-analysis. The Lancet Healthy Longevity, 5(1), e12-e20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(24)00012-3

Kang, S. H. K. (2016). Spaced repetition promotes efficient and effective learning. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(1), 12-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732215624708

Kempermann, G., et al. (2022). Adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus: From stem cells to networks. The Journal of Neuroscience, 42(29), 5678–5690. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0568-22.2022

Li, P., Legault, J., & Litcofsky, K. A. (2014). Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning: Anatomical changes in the human brain. Cortex, 58, 301-324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2014.05.001

Lee, M. H., Kim, J. S., & Park, H. J. (2021). Safety of short-term use of sleep medications. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 17(8), 1653-1660. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.9322

Lindenberger, U., & Lövdén, M. (2021). Brain plasticity and cognitive reserve in aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 201–229. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-072720-022103

Livingston, G., et al. (2021). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. The Lancet Neurology, 20(3), 165–176. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30367-6

Moreno-Jiménez, E. P., Flor-García, M., Terreros-Roncal, J., Rábano, A., Cañi, F., Pallas-Bazarra, N., Avila, J., & Llorens-Martín, M. (2019). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is abundant in neurologically healthy subjects and drops sharply in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Medicine, 25(4), 554-560. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0375-9

Nielsen, J. A., Zielinski, B. A., Ferguson, M. A., Lainhart, J. E., & Anderson, J. S. (2013). An evaluation of the left-brain vs. right-brain hypothesis with resting state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging. PLoS ONE, 8(8), e71275. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071275

Nyberg, L., et al. (2023). Cognitive reserve and brain maintenance in aging. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 24(4), 223–240. DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00679-2

Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget's theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 703-732). Wiley.

Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(3), 181-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x

Salat, D. H., Tuch, D. S., Greve, D. N., van der Kouwe, A. J., Hevelone, N. D., Zaleta, A. K., Rosen, B. R., Fischl, B., Corkin, S., & Rosas, H. D. (2005). Age-related alterations in white matter microstructure measured by diffusion tensor imaging. Neurobiology of Aging, 26(8), 1215-1227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.09.017

Salthouse, T. A. (2011). Cognitive correlates of crossword puzzle frequency across the lifespan. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 288-296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021497

Schlaug, G., Norton, A., Overy, K., & Winner, E. (2005). Effects of music training on the child’s brain and cognitive development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1060(1), 219-230. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1360.015

Smith, R. T., Brown, D. M., & Wilson, E. A. (2023). Sleep deprivation and neuroplasticity: A review. Nature Reviews Neurology, 19(8), 487-496. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-023-00845-0

Song, J., et al. (2023). Dendritic spine plasticity in the adult brain. Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 789–801. DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01289-4

Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2023). Resilience training and cognitive flexibility in adults. American Psychologist, 78(4), 512–525. DOI: 10.1037/amp0000987

Spalding, K. L., Bergmann, O., Alkass, K., Bernard, S., Salehpour, M., Huttner, H. B., Boström, E., Westerlund, I., Vial, C., Buchholz, B. A., Possnert, G., Mash, D. C., Druid, H., & Frisén, J. (2013). Dynamics of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult humans. Cell, 153(6), 1219–1227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.002

Sullivan, E. V., Pfefferbaum, A., & Rosenbloom, M. J. (2010). Chronic effects of alcohol on the brain: Neuroimaging and neuropsychological findings. Alcohol Research & Health, 33(1-2), 83-93. https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh331/83-93.htm

Thomas, R., et al. (2023). Neuroscience-based strategies for adult learning. Journal of Adult Education, 49(2), 123–140. DOI: 10.1177/07417136231165432

van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. (2000). Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1038/35044558

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Voss, P., et al. (2023). Dynamic systems and adult cognitive development. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 24(3), 123–140. DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00654-9

Walker, M. P., & Stickgold, R. (2022). Sleep and memory consolidation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(5), 299–314. DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00587-3

Wilson, F. G., Taylor, R. W., & Anderson, J. L. (2022). Lifestyle interventions and neuroplasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(10), 598-607. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-022-00630-4

Wu, M.-T., Tang, P.-F., Goh, J. O. S., Chou, T.-L., Chang, Y.-K., Hsu, Y.-C., Chen, Y.-C., & Chen, N.-C. (2018). Task-switching performance improvements after Tai Chi Chuan training are associated with greater prefrontal activation in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 10, 280. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00280

Zhang, Y., Chen, J., Qiu, J., Li, Y., Wang, J., & Jiao, J. (2016). Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: A dose-response meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103(2), 330–340. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.124081

###

badphd