Summary: Discover the living web of systems theory in biology, ecology, and humanity through this insightful exploration of life’s interconnected processes. Drawing from Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s foundational concepts and modern perspectives like Fritjof Capra and Pier Luigi Luisi’s The Systems View of Life, this article unravels how open systems drive metabolism, growth, and cognition in organisms, sustain Earth’s homeostasis as a living entity, and shape dynamic human organizations. From autopoiesis and dissipative structures to organizational resilience, learn how patterns, structures, and processes unify life across scales. Updated with contemporary sources like Meadows’ Thinking in Systems and Lenton’s Gaia research, this study bridges biology, ecology, and social science offering a holistic framework for understanding existence. Perfect for researchers, students, and professionals interested in systems thinking, organizational behavior, and ecological dynamics.

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The web of life 

The living web of systems theory weaves a profound narrative that connects life’s smallest units to its grandest societies. What defines life itself? Ludwig von Bertalanffy (2015) challenged mechanistic views, asserting that living systems thrive through processes—growth, self-regulation, and environmental exchange—not mere mechanics. Fritjof Capra and Pier Luigi Luisi (2014) echo this, proposing that life emerges from the interplay of pattern, structure, and process, a dance of autopoiesis and cognition spanning organisms, ecosystems, and beyond.

This article delves into how these principles illuminate biology’s open systems, ecology’s Gaia framework, and humanity’s organizational dynamics. From cells adapting to stimuli to Earth maintaining homeostasis and organizations fostering resilience, systems theory reveals a universal lens.

Understanding key concepts in systems theory illuminates their applications across biological, ecological, and human systems, allowing us to assess their universal applicability.

Life beyond mechanics

Exploring systems concepts for living systems often begins with a question posed by Capra and Luisi (2014): What is life? Biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy (2015) criticized mechanistic definitions, arguing that qualitative laws of nature reveal “little [about] the ultimate reality of nature” (p. 156). Similarly, Capra and Luisi, drawing from a deep ecology perspective emphasizing the interdependence of all phenomena, rejected reductionist scientific approaches that dissect complex systems into quantitative parts (p. 10). Both scholars insisted that systems must be understood through the qualitative relationships of their components within their broader context.

Bertalanffy (2015) argued that the distinction between living and non-living systems lies in process, not mechanics. Living systems exhibit order through chemical and physical processes that enable persistence, development, growth, reproduction, and other biological functions. He noted that mechanical descriptions fail to define life adequately because they overlook how organization emerges, self-regulates, and interacts with the environment (pp. 139-140).

The essence of living systems

Bertalanffy (2015) described a living organism as a complex open system that sustains itself by continuously exchanging matter with its environment (p. 156). Key characteristics—metabolism, growth, development, self-regulation, response to stimuli, and spontaneous activity—arise from open system processes (p. 149). 

An open system involves two primary variables: 

• Statics: How the system maintains exchange, degeneration, and regeneration independent of time.
• Dynamics: How the system evolves over time.

A system begins in an unstable state and progresses toward stability, driving growth and development. Environmental changes can disrupt this steady state, triggering adaptation and stimulus responses (Bertalanffy, 2015, p. 160). 

Capra and Luisi (2014) proposed a holistic theory of life integrating pattern, structure, and process, asserting that “the process of life is the activity involved in the continual embodiment of an autopoietic pattern within a dissipative structure,” which they connect to cognition, or “the process of knowing” (p. 255). Below are summaries of these concepts: 

Pattern

An organism's form, order, and quality are defined by the configuration of relationships among its components that shape its essential characteristics. Mapping these relationships describes the pattern. For example, a beehive’s layout shows how bees work together to make honey. 

Structure

An organism's substance, matter, and quantity embody the organization pattern. Mapping physical components outlines the structure. For example, a tree’s roots, trunk, and leaves form its solid shape. 

Life Process

The ongoing embodiment of the system’s pattern within its structure (Capra & Luisi, 2014, p. 258). Process links pattern and structure through continuous interaction among components. For example, a river keeps flowing by moving water through its banks. 

Self-Making (Autopoiesis)

Living systems continuously regenerate themselves through autopoiesis, or “self-making.” This involves dynamic relationships among production processes, distinguishing biological from physical phenomena (p. 262). For example, a lizard regrows its tail after losing it. 

Dissipative Structures

Structurally open yet organizationally closed, these systems feature boundaries that enclose metabolic networks while filtering energy and matter. For example, human skin encloses internal processes, filtering nutrients in and waste out, enabling self-renewal and evolution through environmental interaction. Or a lake takes in rainwater and releases vapor while remaining a lake. 

Cognition

Drawing from Bateson’s ecological insights, Capra and Luisi (2014) argued that cognition—the act of knowing—is inseparable from life (p. 267). The Santiago Theory posits that cognition extends beyond brain-based thinking to include perception, emotion, and action, evident in brainless organisms like plants reacting to environmental changes. For example, a sunflower turns toward the sun to grow. 

Continuous

Continuity is central to living systems. Components, matter, and processes perpetually change—cells regenerate, organs evolve, and growth persists—until these processes cease, marking the end of organic life (Meadows, 2008, p. 15). For example, your hair keeps growing until you’re no longer alive. 

 

In short, living things act like open systems, always swapping materials with their surroundings. They grow, adjust, and survive by handling both calm times and shifts. Life blends patterns (how parts link up), structures (what they’re built from), and processes (how they stay active). They even rebuild themselves and sense their world, like plants turning to light. Life’s a nonstop, moving blend of these things, keeping it all going until it stops.

Systems thinking in action

General systems theory asserts that its principles apply universally across systems, regardless of their components or environments, focusing on wholes rather than isolated entities (Bertalanffy, 2015). Bertalanffy described this as a hierarchy of nested systems, an idea expanded by Wilber (2010) as “holarchies”—natural hierarchies of increasing wholeness, like a family fitting inside a school (p. 45).

Meadows (2008) reinforces this by emphasizing that systems thinking reveals leverage points—spots where small changes make a big difference—applicable across scales, from cells to societies (p. 145). For example, a cell uses energy to grow, just like a city uses resources to expand—both follow the same system rules. These ideas connect tiny living things, Earth’s balance, and human groups, showing how systems thinking works everywhere.

Systems thinking shows how everything fits together, from tiny cells to huge societies. It’s not about separate pieces but the whole picture—like layers of a cake stacking up. This way of looking at things helps us find smart ways to make changes that work everywhere. Whether it’s a single living thing or a whole community, the same big ideas connect them all, no matter the size.

Earth as a living system

Capra and Luisi (2014) used systems theory to explore ecology through Lovelock’s Gaia Theory. This views Earth as a living system. Earth’s parts—like oceans, air, and land—work together in a “single web” to keep conditions stable, or in homeostasis, while swapping matter with its surroundings (Lenton et al., 2018, p. 592). For example, oceans absorb sunlight and release heat to balance Earth’s temperature.

Earth is autopoietic, meaning it rebuilds itself—like growing new land after lava cools or forests after fires. It’s also a dissipative structure, using energy—like sunlight—to stay organized while letting heat escape, all while spinning as a planet within our solar system. Self-contained yet open to energy, Earth generates life by filtering in sunlight and pushing out waste (Capra & Luisi, 2014, p. 363). This shows Earth acts alive, linking systems theory across cells, individuals, societies, nations, planets, the solar system, and the universe. 

Adaptive human systems

How does systems theory apply to human systems? Bertalanffy (2015) stated, “Social science is the science of social systems” (p. 195). While humans introduce unique variables—consciousness, values, choice, and culture—these broaden the framework’s applicability (p. 195). Unlike natural sciences focused on physical entities, social sciences address “human beings and their self-created universe of culture” (p. 197), where values transcend the physical.

Bertalanffy’s biological organism metaphor, refined by Katz and Kahn (1978) for organizational development, portrays organizations as complex open systems. Internal components and subsystems dynamically interact within boundaries to ensure survival while exchanging resources with and adapting to the environment (Cummings & Worley, 2020, p. 52). This open systems model underpins organizational behavior (McShane & Von Glinow, 2021). 

This dynamic process involves inputs (resources from the environment), processes (internal interactions), and outputs (influence on the environment). Subsystems—individuals, groups, and processes—interact to maintain the organization. In stable environments, a steady state suffices; in dynamic ones, innovation and adaptation are critical for survival (Britt & Jex, 2015, p. 89). Changes within or outside the system can ripple unpredictably, as follows: 

• Pattern: Informal relationships within the culture define essential characteristics.
• Structure: Organizational charts depict the pattern’s embodiment.
• Process: People and technology interact to achieve goals while pursuing individual interests (McShane & Von Glinow, 2021, p. 34).
• Self-Making: People create processes and relationships to meet personal and organizational objectives.
• Dissipative Structure: Structurally open yet organizationally closed, the organization filters resources in and outputs products, strengthening internal and external relationships for survival.
• Cognition: Cultural assumptions and artifacts reflect a collective organizational mind (Cummings & Worley, 2020, p. 67).
• Adaptability: Recent systems research highlights adaptability as key to organizational resilience in turbulent environments (Smith & Lewis, 2022, p. 213).

In short, systems theory shows organizations as living systems, not just structures. Bertalanffy (2015) saw social science as studying human systems, where culture and choice matter more than physical rules. His organism metaphor, built on by Katz and Kahn (1978), frames organizations as open systems—people and groups interact, adapt, and use resources to survive. In calm times, they stay steady; in tough times, they innovate, as Britt and Jex (2015) note. Changes ripple through relationships, processes, and culture, shaping a shared mind (Cummings & Worley, 2020). Smith and Lewis (2022) prove adaptability keeps organizations strong, no matter the challenge.

Life's big web

Systems theory shows how everything in life connects, from tiny cells to individuals, societies, nations, planet, solar system, and universe. Ludwig von Bertalanffy said living things work because of processes—like growing or adapting—not just parts. Fritjof Capra and Pier Luigi Luisi added that life mixes patterns, structures, and actions, as seen in plants, Earth, and people working together.

A dynamic web provides an appropriate metaphor. Cells adjust to changes, people adapt, the Earth keeps balance, and organizations find new ways to survive. Donella Meadows and Timothy Lenton prove this idea still works today, linking science and society. Systems theory helps us see life as an interconnected effort, not just separate pieces. It’s about understanding how living things—including us—keep going and changing with the world around them, no matter the size.

References

Bertalanffy, L. v. (2015). General system theory: Foundations, development, applications. New York: George Braziller. (Original work published 1968)

Britt, T. W., & Jex, S. M. (2015). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Capra, F., & Luisi, P. L. (2014). The systems view of life: A unifying vision. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2020). Organization development and change (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

Lenton, T. M., et al. (2018). Co-evolution of Earth’s climate and biosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 32(4), 586-602.

McShane, S. L., & Von Glinow, M. A. (2021). Organizational behavior: Emerging knowledge, global reality (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

Meadows, D. H. (2008). Thinking in systems: A primer. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing.

Smith, W. K., & Lewis, M. W. (2022). Navigating paradox in organizations: A systems perspective. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 39(2), 207-219.

Wilber, K. (2010). Integral theory in action: Applied, theoretical, and constructive perspectives. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

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